Indian States and Touching Country

Indian States touching Pakistan
Mind Trick: (“PARAG JAMMU gaya”)

Explanation: 
Pa = Punjab
Ra = Rajasthan
G = Gujarat
Jammu = J&K

2. Indian States Touching Myanmar
Mind Trick (“ARUNA MAMI”)

Explanation:
ARU = ARUNACHAL PARDESH
NA = NAGALAND
MA = MANIPUR
MI = MIJORAM

3. Indian States Touching Bangladesh
Mind Trick (“BAAP MEra A-MITRA”)

Explanation of Trick:
1. Ba =Bangladesh
2. P =Pacchim (west) Bengal
3. Me = Meghalaya
4. A = Assam
5. Mi = Mizoram
6. Tra = Tripura

4. Indian States Touching China
Mind Trick: (“HI AAJ kaise ho tu-SI”)

Explanation of Trick:
1. Hi =Himachal Pradesh
2. Aa = Arunachal Pradesh
3. J = Jammu and Kashmir
4. Si = Sikkim

5. Indian States Touching Bhutan
Mind Trick: (“SAAB”)

Explanation of Trick:
1. S = SIKKIM
2. A = ARUNACHAL PRADESH
3. A = ASSAM
4. B = BENGAL

Tricks to remember Indian States and Touching Country for competitive exams

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Common Names and Formulas of Important Chemical Compounds

Chemical formulas provide a lot of information about chemical substances, such as how many and what atoms they are made of, as well as the way the atoms are arranged.
A compound is a substance made up of a definite proportion of two or more elements. A chemical formula tells us the number of atoms of each element in a compound. It contains the symbols of the atoms of the elements present in the compound, as well as how many there are for each element in the form of subscripts. Below are a few examples of a few compounds and what their chemical formulas are:
1. Common Names: Baking Powder
Chemical Compounds: Sodium Bicarbonate
Chemical Formula: NaHCO₃
2. Common Names: Blue Vitriol
Chemical Compounds: Copper Sulphate
Chemical Formula: CuSO₄.5H₂O
3. Common Names: Bleaching Powder
Chemical Compounds: Calcium Oxychloride
Chemical Formula: CaOCL₂
4. Common Names: Chloroform
Chemical Compounds: Trichloro Methane
Chemical Formula: CHCl₃
5. Common Names: Chalk (Marble)
Chemical Compounds: Calcium Carbonate
Chemical Formula: CaCo₃
6. Common Names: Caustic Potash
Chemical Compounds: Potassium Hydroxide
Chemical Formula: KOH
7. Common Names: Caustic Soda
Chemical Compounds: Sodium Hydroxide
Chemical Formula: NaOH
8. Common Names: Dry Ice
Chemical Compounds: Solid Carbondioxide
Chemical Formula: CO₂
9. Common Names: Epsom
Chemical Compounds: Magnesium Sulphate
Chemical Formula: MgSo₄
10. Common Names: Gypsum
Chemical Compounds: Calcium Sulphate
Chemical Formula: CaSo₄
11. Common Names: Green Vitriol
Chemical Compounds: Ferrous Sulphate
Chemical Formula: FeSo₄
12. Common Names: Heavy Water
Chemical Compounds: Deuterium Oxide
Chemical Formula: D₂O
13. Common Names: Vinegar
Chemical Compounds: Acetic Acid
Chemical Formula: CH₃COOH
14. Common Names: Washing Soda
Chemical Compounds: Sodium Carbonate
Chemical Formula: Na₂CO₃
15. Common Names: Slaked Lime
Chemical Compounds: Calcium Hydroxide
Chemical Formula: Ca(OH)₂
16. Common Names: Potash Alum
Chemical Compounds: Potassium Aluminium Sulphate
Chemical Formula: KALSO₄
17. Common Names: Quick Lime
Chemical Compounds: Calcium Oxide
Chemical Formula: CaO
18. Common Names: Plaster of Paris
Chemical Compounds: Calcium Sulphate
Chemical Formula: CaSO₄2H₂O
19. Common Names: Mohr's Salt
Chemical Compounds: Ammonium Ferrous Sulphate
Chemical Formula: FeSO₄(NH₄)2SO₄.6H₂O
20. Common Names: White Vitriol
Chemical Compounds: Zinc Sulphate
Chemical Formula: ZnSo₄.7H₂O
21. Common Names: Marsh Gas
Chemical Compounds: Methane
Chemical Formula: CH₄
22. Common Names: Magnesia
Chemical Compounds: Magnesium Oxide
Chemical Formula: MgO
23. Common Names: Laughing Gas
Chemical Compounds: Nitrous Oxide
Chemical Formula: N₂O
24. Common Names: Vermelium
Chemical Compounds: Mercuric Sulphide
Chemical Formula: HgS
25. Common Names: Sugar
Chemical Compounds: Sucrose
Chemical Formula: C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁
26. Common Names: T.N.T.
Chemical Compounds: Trinitrotoluene
Chemical Formula: C₇H₅N₃O₆
27. Common Names: Sand
Chemical Compounds: Silicon Oxide
Chemical Formula: SiO₂

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Notes on Sports

Olympics

• Olympics games were started in 776 BC on Mount Olympia in the honour of Greek God, “Zeus’. The modern Olympic Games were started in Athens, the capital of Greece on 6^th April, 1896 with great efforts made by Frence nobleman, Baron Pierre de Coubertin.
• The Olympic Games were organized after every 4 years.
• The Olympic Flag is made up of white silk and contains five interwined rings as the Olympic Emblem.
• The Five interlaced rings are arranged in 3-2 pattern on a white background, with the blue ring to the extreme left, followed by yellow, black, green and red, in the same order.
• Blue for Europe, Black for Africa, Red for  Americas (North and south America), Yellow for Asia and Green for Oceania (Australia and New Zealand).
• The official Olympic Motto is Citius, Altius, Fortius, a Latin Phrase meaning Swifter, Higher, Stronger. The Head office of international Olympic Committee (IOC) is at Lausanne (Switzerland)

Commonwealth Games

• The first Commonwealth Games were held in 1930 in Hamilton, Canada where 11 countries sent 400 athletes to take part in 6 sports and 59 events. Six sports made up the programme of the first Commonwealth Games: Athletics, Aquatics (Swimming & Diving), Boxing, Lawn Bowls, Rowing and Wrestling
• Since 1930, the games have been conducted every 4 years except for 1942 and 1946 due to World War II.
• The Commonwealth Games are also known as the British Empire Games from 1930 to 1950, the British Empire and Commonwealth Games from 1954 to 1966 and the British Commonwealth Games from 1970 to 1974.
• The commonwealth Games federation (CGF) is the organization which is responsible for the direction and control of the commonwealth Games.
• There are currently 54 members of the commonwealth of Nations, and 71 teams participated in the games.
• The Asian Games, also called the Asiad, are a multi – sport event held every 4 years among athletes from all over Asia.
• The games are regulated by the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA), under the supervision of the international Olympic Committee (IOC). The first Asian Games were held in 1951 in New Delhi (India). 18^th Asian Games of 2018 will be held at Jakarta (Indonesia).
• India has participated in fourteen of the eighteen previous Commonwealth Games. India hosted the Games in 2010, at Delhi. It was India's most successful Commonwealth Games to date with Indian athletes winning 38 gold, 27 silver and 36 bronze medals.

Cricket World Cup

• The first World Cup was organised in England in June 1975.

Hockey World Cup

• The first Hockey World Cup was organized in Barcelona (Spain) in 1971.
• Women’s Hockey world cup has been held since 1974.
• The 13^th Hockey world cup held in the Netherlands (Hague) in 2014.
• The 14^th Hockey world cup will be held in Bhubaneswar India in  2018.

Football World Cup

• The football world cup is organized by FIFA (Federation  of International Football Association).
• The world cup is called ‘Jules Rimet Cup’ named after the  name of FIFA President Jules Rimet.
• The first Football World cup was oranised in Uruguay in 1930.
• In 1942 and 1946, the football world cup was not played due to World War II.
• The 20^th FIFA world cup held in Brazil in which Germany become the champion by defeating Argentina 1-0 in the final.
• Brazil is the only nation to have participated in every World Cup so far.
• The 2018 and 2022 Football world cup scheduled to be held at Russia and Qatar respectively.

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Sex Determination in Human Beings

Sex Determination:

• In human beings we determine the sex with the help of the sex chromosome i.e. with the help of X and Y chromosome.
• In human beings 46 chromosomes are found out of which 44 are found in 22 pairs called autosomes and other two chromosomes are called sex chromosomes.
• The rest two chromosomes are same in female and are called X- chromosomes (XX).
• In male the rest two chromosomes are different and are called X and Y chromosomes.
• During reproduction females produces one type of gametes and containing 22 autosomes and one X chromosomes, while males produces two types of gametes one have 22 + X type chromosomes and other have 22+ Y types of chromosomes.
• When a male gametes i.e. sperm carrying X chromosomes fertilizes an ova, the zygote develop into female.
• When a sperm carrying Y chromosomes fertilizes an egg, zygote develops into male.

Some Genetic Disorder occur due to Chromosomes:

Klinefelter Syndrome:

• When a male have an extra X or Y chromosome in sex chromosomes then the condition will be XXY or XYY instead of XY. The individual became sterile in this condition.
• In female when an extra X chromosomes is present instead of XY they show normal development but limited fertility, metal retardness is also seen in this type of syndrome.

Turner’s Syndrome:

• When female has single sex chromosome(X0) their ovaries are rudimentary, lack of secondary sexual character.

Down’s Syndrome:

When an extra chromosomes is  added to 21^st autosomal chromosomes this lead to develop Down’s syndrome.

Colour Blindness:

• This disorder leads to failure to distinguish between red & green colour.
•  The gene responsible for this disease is situated on a sex chromosomes.

Patau’s Syndrome:

• This type of syndrome is developed by an addition of autosomal chromosome in 13^th chromosome.
• There is a cut mark in the lip and person is mentally retarded.

Number of Chromosomes in Different Organisms:

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Human Digestive System

Digestive System:

Human beings depend on other organism for food, therefore are called heterotrophic organisms, they need nutrients for various day to day activities. The complete process of nutrition is divided into five stages:

• Ingestion
• Digestion
• Absorption
• Assimilation
• Defecation

Ingestion:

The process of taking food into the mouth is known as ingestion.

Digestion:

• There is some food which is not directly absorbable, so the process of conversion of non-absorbable food into the absorbable form is known as digestion.
• The digestion of food is started from the mouth.
• In mouth there are Salivary gland which secrets the Saliva in mouth in which two types of enzymes are found, ptyalin and maltase.
• These enzymes convert the simple sugar and make it digestible.
• Around 1.5 litre of saliva is secreted in human on an average day, it is acidic in nature (pH 6.8)
• Through food pipe food reach into the stomach.

Digestion in Stomach:

• As the food reaches in the stomach gastric glands secretes the gastric juice, this is a light yellow acidic acid.
• Hydrochloric acid secreted from the Oxyntic cells of the stomach kills all the bacteria coming with food the; and accelerates the reaction of enzymes.
• Hydrochloric acid makes the food acidic by which ptyalin reaction of the saliva end.
• Pepsin and Renin are the enzymes in the gastric juice.
• Pepsin breaks down the protein into peptones.
• Renin breaks down the Caseinogen into Casein.

Digestion in Duodenum:

• As the food reaches the duodenum bile juice form the liver combines with it.
• Main function of the bile juice is to convert the acidic food into alkaline, as it is alkaline in nature.
• Pancreatic juice form pancreas combines with food and it contains the following enzymes:

1. Trypsin: It converts the protein and peptone into polypeptides and amino acid.
2. Amylase: It converts the starch into soluble sugar.
3. Lipase: It converts the emulsified fats into glycerol and fatty acids.

Small Intestine:

• Here the process of digestion completed and absorption of digested foods start.
• In small intestine, intestinal juices secrete and it is alkaline in nature and around 2 liters of intestinal juice secretes per day.
• Intestinal juice contains the following enzymes:

1. Erepsin: It converts the remaining protein and peptone into amino acids.
2. Maltase: It converts the maltose into glucose.
3. Sucrase: It converts the sucrose into glucose and fructose.
4. Lactase: It converts the lactose into glucose and galactose.
5. Lipase: It converts the emulsified fats into glycerol ad fatty acids.

Absorption:

• The process of reaching the digested food into the blood is called absorption.
• The absorption of digested foods takes place through small intestine villi.

Assimilation:

• Use of absorbed food in the body is called assimilation.

Defecation:

Undigested food reaches into large intestine where bacterias converts it into faeces which is excreted through anus.

Disorders of digestive system:

Here are some important digestive disorder in human beings.
Vomiting:
Expulsion of food from mouth due to irritation in stomach.
Diarrhoea:
Infectious disease resulting in loose frequent bowel.
Jaundice:
Yellow colouration of skin and mucous membrane.
Gall stone:
Cholesterol crystallises to from gall stone.
Constipation:
difficulty of defecation due to decreased mobility in large intestine.

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Human Respiratory System

Respiratory System

• The respiratory system is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and the environment.
• The primary organs of the respiratory system are lungs, which carry out this exchange of gases as we breathe.
• All those organs comes under respiratory system which help in exchange of  gases are – Nasal passage, Pharynx, Larynx or Voice box, Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Lungs etc.

Nasal passage :

• Nasal passage is a channel for air flow through the nose and its inner wall is lined with mucous membrane.
• Mucous contains innumerable tiny hair like cell that  prevents the particles of sand, bacteria or other small organisms from entering into the body.
• Mucous makes the air wet entering into the body and equalises it with the temperature of the body.

Pharynx:

• Muscular membranous channel connecting the nasal cavity to the larynx and the oral cavity to the esophagus; it enables breathing, ingestion of food and speech.

Larynx or Voice box :

• The part of the respiratory system which connects the pharynx with trachea is called Larynx or voice box and it main function is to produce sound.
• At the larynx entrance gate there is a thin blade-like door, which is called epiglottis which ensure that the larynx closes during the food intake so that food cannot enter the respiratory system .

Trachea:

• It enters into the thoracic cavity and divided into two bronchi i.e. right and left.
• Right bronchi enter into the right lungs after being divided into three branches.
•  Left bronchi enter into the left lungs after being divided into only two branches.

Lungs:

• The structure of lung is like sponge and its colour is  red.
•  There are two lungs in the thoracic cavity i.e. right lung and left lung.
•  Each lung is surrounded by a membrane which is called pleural membrane.
• Size of right lung is greater in comparison to left lung.

The process of respiration can be divided into four parts :

1. External respiration
2. Transportation of gases
3. Internal respiration
4. Cellular respiration

1. External respiration: 

 It can be divided into two parts
(a) Breathing
(b) Exchange of gases

Mechanism of Breathing :

The process of taking air into and expelling it from the lungs is called breathing.
Inspiration :

• At this stage, air from the environment enters into the lungs through the nasal passage, due to increases in the dimension of thoracic cavity a low pressure is formed in the lungs and air enters into the lungs from environment. This air continues to enter until the pressure of air inside and outside the body became equal.

Expiration : In this process air comes out of the lungs.

 Exchange of gases :

• The exchange of gases takes place inside the lungs. This gaseous exchange takes place on the basis of concentration gradient through normal diffusion.
• The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases takes place due to their difference in partial pressures..

2.Transportation of gases :

• The process of transportation of oxygen from lungs to the cells and transportation of carbon dioxide from cells to lungs is called transportation of gases.
• Transportation of gases takes place through blood.

(i) By mixing with plasma : Carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid after mixing in plasma. Transportation of 7% carbon dioxide takes place in this form.
(ii) In the form of bicarbonates : 70% part of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonates is transported. It mixes with potassium and sodium of blood and forms potassium bicarbonate and sodium bicarbonate.

3.Internal respiration :

• Inside the body, gaseous exchange takes place between blood and tissue fluid which is called internal respiration.

4.Cellular respiration : 

The process of oxidization of glucose is called cellular respiration.
Types of Respiration: Respiration is o two types i.e. anaerobic respiration and aerobic respiration.

1.Anaerobic respiration:

• When oxidation of food occur in the absence of oxygen ,it is called anaerobic respiration.
• During this only 2 ATP molecules are produced from one molecule of glucose.
•  Final product of anaerobic respiration in animal tissue like skeletal muscle cell is lactic acid.
• Lactic acid causes the pain in muscles  if we do excess exercise

• 2.Aerobic respiration:

  When oxidation of food takes place in the presence of oxygen , it is called aerobic respiration.

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2017 Padma Awads

Padma Awards - one of the highest civilian Awards of the country, are conferred in three categories, namely, Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan and Padma Shri.
📌 The Awards are given in various disciplines/ fields of activities, viz.- art, social work, public affairs, science and engineering, trade and industry, medicine, literature and education, sports, civil service, etc. ‘Padma Vibhushan’ is awarded for exceptional and distinguished service; ‘Padma Bhushan’ for distinguished service of high order and ‘Padma Shri’ for distinguished service in any field.
📌 The awards are announced on the occasion of Republic Day every year.
📌 These awards are conferred by the President of India at ceremonial functions which are held at Rashtrapati Bhawan usually around March/ April every year.
📌 This year the President of India has approved conferment of Padma Awards to 89 persons.
📌 The list comprises of 7 Padma Vibhushan, 7 Padma Bhushan and 75 Padma Shri Awardees. 
📌 19 of the awardees are women and the list also includes 5 persons from the category of foreigners, NRIs, PIOs and 6 Posthumous awardees.
➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖
🇮🇳🇮🇳🇮🇳 PADMA VIBHUSHAN 🇮🇳🇮🇳🇮🇳
✔ Name▶▶▶Field ▶▶▶State ✔
Shri K J Yesudas ➡ Art-Music ➡ Kerala
Sadhguru Jaggi Vasudev ➡ Others-Spiritualism ➡ Tamil Nadu
Shri Sharad Pawar ➡ Public Affairs ➡ Maharashtra
Shri Murli Manohar Joshi ➡ Public Affairs ➡ Uttar Pradesh
Prof. Udipi Ramachandra Rao ➡ Science & Engineering ➡ Karnataka
Late Shri Sunder Lal Patwa (Posthumous) ➡ Public Affairs ➡ Madhya Pradesh            
Late Shri PA Sangma (Posthumous) ➡ Public Affairs ➡ Meghalaya
➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖
🇮🇳🇮🇳🇮🇳 Padma Bhushan 🇮🇳🇮🇳🇮🇳
✔ Name▶▶▶Field ▶▶▶State ✔
              
Shri Vishwa Mohan Bhatt ➡ Art-Music ➡ Rajasthan
Prof. (Dr.) Devi Prasad Dwivedi ➡ Literature & Education ➡ Uttar Pradesh          
Shri Tehemton Udwadia ➡ Medicine ➡ Maharashtra
Shri Ratna Sundar Maharaj ➡ Others-Spiritualism ➡ Gujarat
Swami Niranjana Nanda Saraswati ➡ Others-Yoga ➡ Bihar
H.R.H. Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn (Foreigner) ➡ Literature & Education ➡ Thailand
Late Shri Cho Ramaswamy (Posthumous) ➡ Literature & Education –Journalism ➡ Tamil Nadu
➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖
🇮🇳🇮🇳🇮🇳 Padma Shri 🇮🇳🇮🇳🇮🇳
✔ Name▶▶▶Field ▶▶▶State ✔
Smt. Basanti Bisht ➡ Art-Music ➡  Uttarakhand          
Shri Chemanchery Kunhiraman Nair ➡ Art-Dance ➡ Kerala
           
Smt. Aruna Mohanty ➡ Art-Dance ➡ Odisha
Smt. Bharathi Vishnuvardhan ➡ Art-Cinema ➡ Karnataka
Shri Sadhu Meher ➡ Art-Cinema ➡ Odisha
Shri T K Murthy ➡ Art-Music ➡ Tamil Nadu
Shri Laishram Birendrakumar Singh ➡ Art-Music ➡ Manipur
Shri Krishna Ram Chaudhary ➡ Art-Music ➡ Uttar Pradesh
Smt. Baoa Devi➡Art-Painting ➡Bihar
Shri Tilak Gitai➡Art-Painting ➡Rajasthan
Dr. Prof. Aekka Yadagiri Rao➡Art-Sculpture ➡Telangana
Shri Jitendra Haripal➡Art-Music ➡Odisha
Shri Kailash Kher➡Art-Music ➡Maharashtra
Smt. Parassala B Ponnammal➡Art-Music ➡Kerala
Smt. Sukri Bommagowda➡Art-Music ➡Karnataka
Shri Mukund Nayak➡Art-Music ➡Jharkhand
Shri Purushottam Upadhyay➡Art-Music ➡Gujarat
Smt. Anuradha Paudwal➡Art-Music ➡Maharashtra
Shri Wareppa Naba Nil➡Art-Theatre ➡Manipur
Shri Tripuraneni Hanuman Chowdary➡Civil Service➡Telangana
Shri T.K. Viswanathan➡Civil Service➡Haryana
Shri Kanwal Sibal➡Civil Service➡Delhi
Shri Birkha Bahadur Limboo Muringla➡Literature & Education➡Sikkim
Smt. Eli Ahmed➡Literature & Education➡Assam
Dr. Narendra Kohli➡Literature & Education➡Delhi
Prof. G. Venkatasubbiah➡Literature & Education ➡Karnataka
Shri Akkitham Achyuthan Namboothiri➡Literature & Education➡Kerala
Shri Kashi Nath Pandita➡Literature & Education➡Jammu & Kashmir
Shri Chamu Krishna Shastry➡Literature & Education➡Delhi
Shri Harihar Kripalu Tripathi➡Literature & Education➡Uttar Pradesh
Shri Michel Danino➡Literature & Education➡Tamil Nadu
Shri Punam Suri➡Literature & Education➡Delhi
Shri VG Patel➡Literature & Education➡Gujarat
Smt. V Koteswaramma➡Literature & Education➡Andhra Pradesh
Shri Balbir Dutt➡Literature & Education-Journalism➡Jharkhand
Smt. Bhawana Somaaya➡Literature & Education-Journalism➡Maharashtra
Shri Vishnu Pandya➡Literature & Education-Journalism➡Gujarat
Dr. Subroto Das➡Medicine ➡Gujarat
Dr. (Smt.) Bhakti Yadav➡Medicine ➡Madhya Pradesh
Dr. Mohammed Abdul Waheed➡Medicine ➡Telangana
Dr. Madan Madhav Godbole➡Medicine ➡Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Devendra Dayabhai Patel➡Medicine ➡Gujarat
Prof. Harkishan Singh➡Medicine ➡Chandigarh
Dr. Mukut Minz➡Medicine ➡Chandigarh
Shri Arun Kumar Sharma➡Others-Archaeology ➡Chhattisgarh
Shri Sanjeev Kapoor➡Others-Culinary ➡Maharashtra
Smt. Meenakshi Amma➡Others-Martial Art➡Kerala
Shri Genabhai Dargabhai Patel➡Others-Agriculture ➡Gujarat
Shri Chandrakant Pithawa➡Science & Engineering➡Telangana
Prof. Ajoy Kumar Ray➡Science & Engineering➡West Bengal
Shri Chintakindi Mallesham➡Science & Engineering➡Andhra Pradesh
Shri Jitendra Nath Goswami➡Science & Engineering➡Assam
Shri Daripalli Ramaiah➡Social Work➡Telangana
Shri Girish Bhardwaj➡Social Work ➡ Karnataka
Shri Karimul Hak➡Social Work➡West Bengal
Shri Bipin Ganatra➡Social Work➡West Bengal
Smt. Nivedita Raghunath Bhide➡Social work➡Tamil Nadu
Shri Appasaheb Dharmadhikari➡Social Work➡Maharashtra
Baba Balbir Singh Seechewal➡Social Work➡Punjab
Shri Virat Kohli➡Sports-Cricket ➡Delhi
Shri Shekar Naik➡Sports-Cricket ➡Karnataka
Shri Vikasa Gowda➡Sports-Discus Throw➡Karnataka
Smt. Deepa Malik➡Sports-Athletics ➡Haryana
Shri Mariyappan Thangavelu➡Sports-Athletics ➡Tamil Nadu
Smt. Dipa Karmakar➡Sports-Gymnastics ➡Tripura
Shri P R Shreejesh➡Sports-Hockey ➡Kerala
Smt. Sakshi Malik➡Sports-Wrestling ➡Haryana
Shri Mohan Reddy Venkatrama Bodanapu➡Trade & Industry➡Telangana
Shri Imrat Khan(NRI/PIO)➡Art-Music ➡USA
Shri Anant Agarwal(NRI/PIO)➡Literature & Education➡USA
Shri H.R. Shah(NRI/PIO)➡Literature & Education-Journalism➡USA
Late (Smt.) Suniti Solomon(Posthumous)➡Medicine ➡Tamil Nadu
Shri Asoke Kumar Bhattacharyya(Posthumous)➡Others-Archaeology ➡West Bengal
Dr. Mapuskar(Posthumous)➡Social Work➡Maharashtra
Smt. Anuradha Koirala (Foreigner)➡Social Work➡Nepal

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Optics

 

LIGHT

• Light is a form of energy, which is propagated as electromagnetic wave.
• It is the radiation which make our eyes able to 'see the object. Its speed is 3 x 108 m/s. It is the form of energy. It is a transverse wave.
• It takes 8 min 19s to reach on the earth from the sun and the light reflected from moon takes 28s to reach earth.
• When light falls on the surface of an object it can either be

1. Absorbed - If an object absorbs all the light falling on it , then it will appear perfectly black for example a blackboard
2. Transmitted - An object is said to transmit light if it allows light to pass through itself and such objects are transparent.
3. Reflected - If an object sends back light rays falling on its surface then it is said to have reflected the light

Reflection of Light

• When a ray of light falls on a boundary separating two media comes back into the same media, then this phenomenon is called reflection of light.

Laws of Reflection of light

1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, and
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the mirror at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.

Reflection from Plane Mirror

• If an object moves towards a plane mirror with speed v, relative to the object the moves towards it with a speed 2v.
• To see his full image in a plane mirror, a person required a mirror of at least half of his height.

Refraction of Light

• The phenomenon of deviation of light rays from its path when it travels from one transparent medium to another medium is called refraction of light.
• The cause of refraction is due to the different speed of light in different medium.
• When a ray of light enters from one medium to other medium, its frequency and phase do not change, but wavelength and velocity change.
• Due to refraction form Earth's atmosphere, the stars appear to twinkle.

Laws  of Refraction:

• The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all three lie in the same plane.
• The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction remains constant for a pair  of media i.e.

Sin i/Sin r  = constant=μ2/μ1,  this law is known as snell's law

Application of Refraction:

• When light travels from a denser medium towards  a rarer medium it deviates away from the normal , therefore a pond appear shallower.
• A coin appears at lesser depth in water.
• Writing on a paper appears lifted when a glass slab is placed over paper.

Critical Angle:

• The angle of incidence in a denser medium for which the angle of refraction in rarer medium becomes 90°, is called the critical angle.

Total Internal Reflection:

When a light ray travelling from a denser medium to the rarer medium is incident at the interface at an angle of incidence greater than critical angel, then light rays reflected back into the denser medium , this phenomenon is known as total internal reflection
Sparkling of diamond, mirage and looming, shinning of air bubble in water and optical Fibre are examples of total internal reflection.

Spherical Mirror:

Spherical mirror are of two types

1. Concave mirror
2. Convex mirror

• Image formed by a convex mirror is always virtual, erect and diminished.
• Image formed by a concave mirror is generally real and inverted.

Uses of Concave Mirror

• As a shaving mirror
• As a reflector for the head lights of a vehicle, search light
• In ophthalmoscope to examine eye, ear, nose by doctors.
• In solar cookers.

Uses of Convex Mirror

• As a rear view mirror in vehicle because it provides the maximum rear field of view and image formed is always erect.
• In sodium reflector lamp.

Important points related to spherical Mirrors:
Centre of Curvature (c): The centre of the hollow glass sphere of which the mirror is a part.
Radius of Curvature(R): The radius hollow sphere of which the mirror is a part.
Pole(P): The mid-point of a spherical mirror is called pole.
Focus (F): when a parallel beam of light rays is incident on a spherical mirror then after reflection it meets or appears to meet at a point on principal axis, called focus of the spherical mirror.
Focal length(f): 
Focal length d= R/2

Lenses :

A lens is a uniform refracting medium bounded by two spherical surface or one plane surface.

Lenses are of two types:

• Convex lens
• Concave lens

Prism :

Prism is a uniform transparent refracting medium bounded by plane surfaces inclined at some angles forming a triangular shape.
Dispersion of light:
When a light is incident on a glass prism, it splits into its seven colour comonents in the following sequence VIBGYOR,  and this is known as dispersion of white light.
The refractive index of glass is maximum for violet colour and minimum for red colour of light, therefore violet colour of light deviated maximum and red colour of light deviated least.

 

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Motion

Scalar Quantities: 

 Physical quantities which have magnitude only and no direction are called scalar quantities.
Example: Mass, speed, volume, work, time, power, energy etc.

Vector Quantities: 

Physical quantities which have magnitude and direction both and which obey triangle law are called vector quantities.
Example: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, torque etc.
Electric current, though has a direction, is a scalar quantity because it does not obey triangle law.
Moment of inertia, pressure, refractive index, stress are tensor quantities.

Distance: 

Distance is the actual path traveled  by a body in a given period of time.

Displacement:

• The change in the position of the object in a given period of time
•  Distance is a scalar quantity whereas displacement is a vector quantity both having the same unit (metre)
•  Displacement may be positive, negative or zero whereas distance is always positive.

Speed:

• Distance travelled by the moving object in unit time interval is called speed i.e. speed = Distance/ Time
• It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is metre/second (m/s).
• Speed of an object at any instant is called instantaneous speed.
• An object is said to be traveled with non-uniform speed if it covers unequal distance in equal interval of time.

Velocity:

•  Velocity of a moving object is defined as the displacement of the object in unit time interval i.e., velocity =
• It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is metre/second.
• If a body goes equal displacement in equal interval of time then it is called uniform velocity.
• If a body undergoes unequal displacement in equal interval of time then it is called variable velocity.

Relative velocity
= V₁ +V₂ if two travels in opposite direction
=V₁-V₂ if two travels in same direction

Acceleration:

• Acceleration of an object is defined as the rate of change of velocity of the object .
• It is a vector quantity and its SI units is metre/second² (m/s²)
• If velocity decreases with time then acceleration is negative and is called retardation.
• If acceleration does not change with time it is called constant acceleration.
• Some equation of acceleration;

          V=u+at
         S=ut+at²/2
        V²= u²+2as
Here v=final velocity, u is initial velocity, t is time ineterval, a is acceleration and s is the distance travel.

Circular Motion:

• The motion of an object along a circular path it is called circular motion.
• If the object moves with uniform speed, its motion is uniform circular motion.
• Uniform circular motion is an accelerated motion because the direction of velocity changes continuously.

Angular Displacement and Velocity:

The angle subtended at the centre of a circle by a body moving along the circumference of the circle is called angular displacement of the body. It unit is radian.
Angular displacement= length of arc/radius of circle
Time rate of change of angular displacement is called angular velocity.
It is generally denoted by ω and 

Force:

• Force is that external cause which when acts on a body changes or tries to change the initial state of the body.
• Its SI unit is Newton(N).
• A body is said to be in equilibrium if the sum of all the forces acts on the body is Zero.
• Nuclear force is the strongest force.

Momentum:

•  Momentum is the property of a moving body and is defined as the product of mass and velocity of the body i.e.
•           Momentum = mass x velocity.
• It is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is kgm/s.

Newton’s Law:

Newton first law

If no external force acts on a body then it remains in the same state of rest or motion that is in its present state.

Inertia of Rest:

• Inertia is the property of a body by virtue of which it opposes any change in its state of rest or of uniform motion.
• When a bus or train at rest starts to move suddenly the passengers sitting in it feels jerk in backward direction due to inertia of rest.
• Dust particle come out of a carpet if we beat it with stick.
• A passenger jumping out of a train is advised to jump in the direction of bus and ran for a short distance.

Inertia of Motion:

When a running bus or train stops suddenly, the passengers sitting in it jerk in forward direction due to inertia of motion.

Newton's second law of motion:

• The rate of change in momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied force on the body and takes place in the direction of force.

If F = force applied, a = acceleration produced and m = mass of body
then F = ma.

Newton's Third Law of Motion : 

To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Examples of third law –

• Recoil of a gun
• Motion of rocket
• While drawing water from the well, if the string breaks up the man drawing water falls back.

Centripetal Force:
When a body is in circular motion, a force always acts on the body towards the centre of the circular path, this force is called centripiatl force
If a body of mass m is moving on a circular path of radius R with uniform speed v, then the required centripetal force

Centrifugal Force:

• Centrifugal force is such a pseudo force.
• It is equal and opposite to centripetal force.

Application of centripetal and Centrifugal forces:

• Roads are banked at turns to provide required centripetal force for taking a turm.
• Cream is separated form milk when it is rotated in a vessel about the same axis.
• Gravitational force of attraction between earth and sun acts as centripetal force.
• Orbital motion of electrons around the nucleus
• Cyclist inclined itself from vertical to obtain required centripetal force.

Principle of conservation of linear momentum:

• If no external force acts on a system of bodies, the total linear momentum of the system of bodies remains constant.
• As a consequence, the total momentum of bodies before and after collision remains the same.
• As in case of rocket, ejecting gas exerts a forward force which helps in accelerating the rocket in forward direction.

Impulse:

• When a large force acts on a body for very small time, then force is called impulsive force.
• Impulse is defined as the product of force and time.
• Impulse = force x time = change in momentum.
• It is a vector quantity and its direction is the direction of force. Its SI unit is newton second (Ns).

Friction:

It is force which acts on a body when two body are in contact and one tries to move over other.
Types of Friction:
Static Friction:
The opposing force which acts on acts on a body when it tries to move over the other but actual motion has yet not started.
Limiting friction:
It is the force that comes to play, when a body is at the verge of moving over the other body.
Kinetic Friction:
This is the opposing force that comes to play when one body actually moves over the surface of another body is called kinetic friction. It is of two types which are as follows:
Sliding Friction: When a body slides over the surface of other
Rolling Friction: When a body rolls over the surface of another body

• It is easier to roll a body than to slide because the sliding friction is greater than the rolling friction.
• It is easy to drive a bicycle when its  tyres are fully inflated because it decreases rolling friction.

Application of Friction:

• A ball bearing is used to reduce the rotational friction.
• Friction is necessary for walking and to apply breaks in vehicles.
• When a pedal is applied to a bicycle, the force of friction on rear wheel is in forward direction and on front wheel it is in the backward direction.
• Friction can be reduced by applying the polishing or applying any lubricants.
• The tyre are made up of synthetic rubber because its coefficient of friction with road is larger and stops sliding the bicycle.

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Gravitation and Satellite

Gravitation:

Each and every massive body attracts each other by virtue of their masses. This phenomenon is called gravitation.

Newton’s law of Gravitation.

The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Gravitational force (F)=Gm1m2/ r ²

• Where G is the gravitational constant its value is 6.67×10^-11 Nm²kg^-2.
• m1, m2 are the mass of two bodies and r is the distance between them.
• Gravitational force is central as well as conservative force.

Acceleration Due to Gravity of Earth:

• The acceleration produced in a body due to the gravitational pull of earth is called acceleration due to gravity.

g=GM/R²  where M is the mass of earth and R is the radius of earth.

• The value of g changes slightly changes from place to place but its value near the earth’s surface is 9.8ms^-2.
• Gravitational force is the weakest force in nature.

Condition affecting the value of g:

• Shape of Earth: Earth shape also affect the value of acceleration due to gravity that’s why g is maximum at poles and minimum at the equator.
• Rotation of Earth on its axis:
• Effects of Altitude: The value of g decreases with the increase in height.
• Effects of depth: The value of g decreases with depth and become zero at the centre earth.

Mass and Weight:

• The mass of a body is the quantity of matter contains in it and it is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is Kg.
• Mass of a body does not change from place to place.
• The weight of the body is the force with which it is attracted towards the centre of earth and it is given by w=mg.
• Weight of the body is a vector quantity and its unit is Newton
• The centre of gravity of a body is that point at which whole weight of the body appears to act.
• Weight of the body is a variable quantity and it changes from place to place.

Weight of a body in a lift:

• When lift is at rest or in uniform motion then apparent weight is equal to the real weight of the body, w=mg.
• When lift is accelerating upward then apparent weight is greater than the real weight of the body i.e. w=m(g+a)
• When lift is accelerating downward then apparent weight of the body is less than the real weight of the body i.e. w=m(g-a).
• When lift is falling freely under gravity the apparent weight of the body is zero i.e.

          W=m(g-g) as a =g
         w=0

• Weight of the body on moon is lesser than the weight of the body on earth as the acceleration due to gravity at the moon is less than the acceleration due to gravity on earth.  Acceleration due to gravity on Earth is 6 times than that of on the moon.

Planets:

• Planets are the heavenly bodies which  revolves around the sun in a specific orbit or path.
• Our solar system contains eight planets as Pluto losses its planet status.

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion:

Kepler gives three laws which are as follows:

• All planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits with the sun at its one focus.
• The areal speed of planet around the sun is constant.
• The square of the time period of revolution of a planet around the sun is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its elliptical orbit

Satellite:

• A heavenly body revolving around a planet in an orbit is called a satellite.
• Moon is the natural satellite of the earth.

There are two types of artificial satellites:

Geostationary Satellite:

• It revolves around the earth in equatorial orbits which is also called Geostationary or Geosynchronous orbit.
• They revolve around the earth at the height of  36000 Km
• There period of rotation is same as the earth’s time period of rotation around its own axis i.e. 24 hours.
• These satellites appear to be stationary.

Polar Satellite:

These satellites revolve around the earth in polar orbits at a height of around 800 km.
The time period of rotation of these satellite is 84 minutes.

Period of Revolution of a satellite:

• Time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution in its orbit is called its period of revolution.
• Period of revolution= Circumference of orbit/ orbital speed
• Period of revolution of a satellite depends upon the height of satellite from the surface of earth, greater its height from earth surface more will be its period of revolution.
•  Period of revolution is independent of its mass.

Escape Velocity:

• The minimum velocity with which when an object is thrown vertically upwards from the earth’s surface just crosses the earth’s gravitational field and never returns.
• Escape velocity=(2gr)^1/2
• Its value on earth surface is 11.2 km/sec
• When orbital speed is is increased by 41% i.e √2 times then it will escape from its orbit.

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Atomic and Nuclear Physics

Cathode Rays

Cathode rays, discovered by Sir William Crooke and its properties are

• travel in straight lines.
• Produce fluorescence.
• can penetrate through thin foils of metal and deflected by both electric and magnetic fields.
• have velocity ranging 1/30th to 1/10th of the velocity of light.

Positive or Canal Rays

• These rays were discovered by Goldstein.
• The positive ray consists of positively charged particles.
• These rays travel in straight line.
• These rays are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
• These rays can produce ionization in gases.

X-Rays

• X-rays are electromagnetic waves with wavelength range 0.1 A-100 A.
• X-rays were discovered by Roentgen.
• X-rays travels in straight line.
• Long exposures of X – rays in injurious for human body.
• X – rays shows photoelectric effect.

Uses of X-Rays

• In medical sciences X-rays are used in surgery for the detection of fracture, diseased organs, foreign matter like bullet, stones etc. They are used in treatment of cancer and in skin diseases.
• In Engineering, X-rays are used in detecting faults, cracks, flaws and gas pockets in the finished metal products and in heavy metal sheets.
• In Scientific Work, X-rays are used in studying crystal structure and complex molecules.
• In Custom Department X-rays are used in custom department for detection of banned materials kept hidden.

Radioactivity

• Radioactivity was discovered by Henry Becquerel, Madame Curie and Pierre Curie for which they jointly won Nobel Prize.

Nuclear Fission

• Atom Bomb is based on nuclear fission. U²³⁵ and Pu²³⁹ are used as fissionable material.
• Nuclear fission was first demonstrated by Halin and Fritz Strassmann.

Nuclear Fusion

• When two or more light nuclei combined together to form a heavier nucleus is called as nuclear fusion.
• For the nuclear fusion, a temperature of the order of 10⁸ K is required.
• Hydrogen Bomb was made by the American Scientist in 1952. This is based on nuclear fusion. It is 1000 times more powerful than atom bomb.

Nuclear Reactor or Atomic Pile

• Nuclear reactor is an arrangement, in which controlled nuclear fission reaction takes place.
• First nuclear reactor was established in Chicago University under the supervision of Prof Enrico Fermi.
• Heavy water, graphite and beryllium oxide are used to slow down the fast moving neutrons. They are called moderate.

Uses of Nuclear Reactor
(i)To produce electrical energy from the energy released during fission.
(ii)To produce different isotopes, this can be used medical, physical and agriculture science.
There are several components of nuclear reactor which are as follows:

• Fissionable Fuel U²³⁵ or U²³⁹ is used.
• Moderator decreases the energy of neutrons, so that they can be further used for fission reaction.
• Heavy water and graphite are used as moderator.
• Control Rod rods of cadmium or boron are used to absorb the excess neutrons produced in fission of uranium nucleus, so that the chain reaction.

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Electricity

Electricity:

• Electricity deals with the motion of the electric charge.
• Electric charge is a scalar quantity is a scalar quantity its quantity is Coulomb.
• Electricity produced by the friction between two bodies is called static electricity or frictional electricity e.g. generation of electric charge on rubbing the plastic comb with dry hair.
• One body get positive charge and other body get negatively charged.

Coulomb Law:

The magnitude of the electrostatic force of interaction between two charge points is directly proportional to the scalar multiplication of the magnitudes of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Electric Field:

• The space in the surrounding of any charge in which its influence can be experienced by other charge is called electric field.
• Electric field intensity (E) at any point is defined as the electrostatic force acting per unit positive test charge at that point. Its unit is newton/coulomb.
• E=F/q
• Electric field intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance r from the point charge.

Electric Field Lines:

• Electric field line is an imaginary lines or curve drawn through a region of space so that its tangent at any point is in the direction of the electric field vector at that point.
• Two lines an never intersect, electric field always start from positive end and always ends on negative charge and do not start or stop in the mid.

Electric potential:

• Electric potential at any point in an electric field is equal to the work done per unit charge in carrying at least a test charge from infinity to that point. Its unit is joule/coulomb.
• Potential difference between two points in electric field is equal to the work done per unit charge in carrying a positive test charge from one point to the other point.
• Potential difference decides the flow of charge between two points in electric field.
• Positive charge always tends to move from higher potential towards lower potential.
• Inside closed metallic body electric field inside it is zero.

Electric current:

• Electric current is the flow of charge in respect to time.
• Electric current=q/t
• An electric current whose direction does not change with time is called direct current (D.C).
• An electric current whose direction changes with time is called alternating current (A.C).
• In solids current flow due to flow of electrons and in liquid current flow due to flow of ions as well as electrons and  in semiconductors due to flow of electrons and holes.

Resistance:

• The resistance offered by any material in the flow of current is called as electrical resistance. Its S.I unit is ohm and [ML²T^-3A^-2] is its dimension.
• R=PL/A
• L=length of conductor
• A=cross sectional area
• P= resistivity of the material.
• Conductance
• Conductance or conductivity is the reciprocal of resistance and the resistivity of the material respectively. Its SI unit is mho.

Resistivity

• The resistivity of a material is equal to the electrical resistance of its wire of unit length and of unit area of cross section. It unit is ohm-meter.
• Resistivity of a material depends on the temperature and nature of material. It is independent of dimensions of the conductor, i.e. length, area of cross-section.
• Resistivity of metals increases with increase in temperature.
• Resistivity is low for metals, more for semiconductors and very high for alloys.

Combination of Resistances

• Resistance can be connected in two ways i.e. in parallel and in series.
• If resistance R_1, R₂ and R₃ are connected in series their equivalent resistance is given by

R= R₁+R₂+R₃

• In series combination equal current flows through each resistors.
• If resistance R_1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel then equivalent resistance is given by.

1/R =1/R₁ +1/R₂ +1/R₃

Ohm’s Law

• It states that if physical conditions of any conductor such as temperature, pressure etc. are remain unchanged then electric current(I) through  it is directly proportional to the potential difference(V) applied across its ends.
•  V=IR

Kirchoff’s Law:

Kirchoff current law: states that  the net current on a junction in an electrical circuit will be zero. It is based on conservation of charge.
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law:  states that the algebraic sum of all potential difference along a closed loop is Zero. It is based on conservation of energy.

Electric Cell:

• An electric cell is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
• Electric cell are of two types:
• Primary cell: cannot be charged. Voltaic, Daniell and Leclanche cells are primary cells.
• Secondary Cell: can be charged again & again. Acid and alkali accumulators are secondary cells.

Joule’s Law of Heating

• Joule heating describes the process where the energy of an electric current is converted into heat as it flows through a wire due to the resistance of wire. Heat produced in the conductor due to electric current in time “t” is given by
• H=VIT=I²RT=V²t/r
• Electric bulb and heater works on the basis of heating effect produced by the current.

Chemical Effect of Electric current:

• When an electric current is passed through an acidic or basic solution, it decomposes into  its positive and negative ions. The positive ions collect at the negative electrode(Cathode) and the  negative ion is collected at the  positive electrode(anode).This phenomenon is called electrolysis.

Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis

First law:

• The total mass (M) deposited at an electrode in the process of electrolysis is directly proportional to the total charge (q) passed through the electrolyte.
• M=Zq, where Z is  electrochemical equivalent of the substance deposited at electrode.

Second law:

• If same strength of electric current is allowed to passed through different electrolytes for the same time, then mass deposited at the electrodes is directly proportional to their chemical equivalent.
• M₁/M₂ =E₁/E₂

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Magnetism

• In magnetism we study about the magnet and its properties

Magnet

• A magnet is a material which can attract iron objects.
• A natural magnet is an ore of iron (Fe₃O₄) called magnetite or lodestone.
• A magnet which is prepared artificially, is called an artificial magnet.

For Example

• A bar magnet, a horse-shoe magnet etc.
• A freely suspended magnet always aligns itself into North-South direction. Like magnetic poles repel and unlike magnetic poles attract each other.
• A current-carrying coil containing a soft iron core, is called an electromagnet.
• An electromagnet is utilised in electric bell, telegraph receiver, telephone diaphragm, transformer, dynamo etc.
• Permanent magnets are made of steel and temporary magnet or electromagnets are made of soft iron because steel cannot magnetised easily but when it is magnetised one time, cannot be demagnetised easily. The soft iron can be magnetised or demagnetised easily.

Properties of Magnet

• Attractive property A magnet can attract small pieces of magnetic substances like iron, steel, cobalt, nickel etc. The attraction is maximum at poles. Unlike poles attract and like poles repel.
• Directive property A magnet, when suspended freely, aligns itself approximately along geographical N-S line.
• Magnetic poles exist in pairs If a magnet is cut into two equal parts transverse to its length, then N and S-poles of the magnet do not get separated.

Magnetic Field

• The space in the surrounding of a magnet or a current carrying conductor in which its magnetic effect can be experienced, is called magnetic field.
• Magnetic lines of force is an imaginary line drawn in magnetic field at which a magnetic North pole will move, if it is free to do so.
• A tangent drawn at any point of a magnetic line of force represents the direction of magnetic field at that point.
• The magnetic flux linked with a surface is equal to the total number of magnetic lines of force passing through that surface normally. Its unit is weber.
• Magnetic flux, f = A. = BA cos q
• Magnetic Force Acting on a Charge
• Moving in Uniform Magnetic Field

The magnetic force on a moving charge in a magnetic field is given by F = Bqv sin q
where, B = magnetic field, q = charge, v = speed
q = angle between the direction of motion and magnetic field.
Magnetic Force Acting on a Current-Carrying Conductor Placed in Uniform Magnetic Field

• If a conductor carrying element / is placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic force on it is given by  F = Bill sin q

where, l = electric current flowing through the conductor  q = angle between the direction of current and magnetic field.
The direction of this force can be find out by Fleming's left hand rule which is given below.

• If we stretch the thumb, then the force finger and the middle finger of left hand in such a way that all three are perpendicular to each other and if fore finger represents the direction of magnetic field, middle finger represents the direction of current flowing through the conductor, then thumb will represent the direction of magnetic force.

Earth's Magnetism

• The earth has its own magnetic field and it resembles that of a magnetic dipole located at the centre of the earth. The pole near the geographic North of the earth is called the magnetic North pole. Similarly, the pole near the geographic South pole is called the magnetic South pole.
• The Earth's magnetic field diverts charged particle coming from space towards its poles and saves living beings from being severely harmed.
• Magnetic compass A magnetic needle which always direct in North-South (N-S) direction.
• Neutral point A point in a magnetic region where the net magnetic field is zero.

Magnetic Storm
Local disturbances in the earth's magnetic field which can damage telecommunication which are probably caused by lump of charged particles emanating from the sun is known as magnetic storm.
Coil Places in Uniform Magnetic Field
When a coil having number of turns N, each of area of cross-section A carrying current l is placed in a uniform magnetic field B, then a torque acts on it, which tries to rotate it.
Torque,  τ= NB/A sin q
Moving Coil Galvanometer

• A moving coil galvanometer is used to detect the presence of current and the direction of current in any circuit.
• When current is passed through a coil, suspended in a magnetic field, a torque acts on it. As coil rotates, a restoring torque acts on phospher bronze strip due to twist produce in it. In equilibrium, both torques become equal the pointer stops for a short moment and coil starts to rotate in opposite direction.

Ammeter and Voltmeter

• An ammeter is an instrument used to measure electric current. It is always connected in series. The resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero.
• A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance in parallel.
• A voltmeter is a device used to measure potential difference between two points in an electric circuit.
• The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinity. It is always connected in parallel.
• A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series.
• A small resistance connected in parallel with the load resistance to reduce amount of electric current through resistor is called shunt.

Magnetic Substances

• There are three types of magnetic substances Paramagnetic, Diamagnetic and Ferromagnetic.

Paramagnetic Substances

• Those substances which are feebly magnetised in the direction of magnetic field when placed in strong magnetic field, are called paramagnetic substances. For example,- Aluminium, platinum, chromium, manganese, solutions of salts of iron, nickel, oxygen etc.

• These substances are attracted towards strong magnetic field in a non-uniform magnetic field.
• The magnetism of these substances decrease with increase in temperature.

Diamagnetic Substances

• Those substances which are feebly magnetised in the opposite direction of magnetic field when placed in strong magnetic field, are called diamagnetic substances. For example: Gold, Silver, zinc, copper, mercury, water, alcohol, air, hydrogen etc.

• These substances are attracted towards weak magnetic field in a non-uniform magnetic field.
• The magnetism produced in these substances does not change with increase or decrease in temperature.

Ferromagnetic Substances

• Those substances which are strongly magnetised in the direction of magnetic field when placed in it, are called ferromagnetic substances. For example –iron, nickel, cobalt, etc.
• The magnetism produced in these substances decreases with increase in temperature and at a particular temperature, called Curie temperature.
• At the Curie temperature, a paramagnetic substance becomes diamagnetic.
• The Curie law is Xm ∝1/T (where,   Xm= magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance and T = temperature)

• Curie temperature for iron is 770⁰C and for nickel is 358⁰

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Heat and Thermodynamics

Heat

• Heat is a form of energy, which measures the sensation or perception of warmness or coldness of a body or environment
• Its unit are calorie, kilocalorie or joule.
• 1 calorie = 4.18 joule.

Temperature

• Temperature is the measurement of hotness or coldness of a body.
• When two bodies are placed in contact, het always flows from a body at higher temperature to the body at lower temperature.
• An instrument used to measure the temperature of a body is called a thermometer.
• The normal temperature of a human body is 37⁰C or 98.4^{0 F}
• - 40⁰ is the temperature at which Celsius and Fahrenheit thermometers read same.
• The clinical thermometer reads from 96⁰F to 110⁰
• White roof keeps the house cooler in summer than black roof because white roof reflects more and absorbs less heat rays whereas black roof absorbs more and reflects less heat rays.
• Ice wrapped in a blanket does not melt away quick because woolen blanket is a bad conductor of heat.
• Silver is the best conductor of heat.
• Cooking utensils are made of aluminum, brass and steel because these substances have low specific heat and high conductivity.

Thermal Expansion

• Thermal expansion is the increase in size on heating.
• A solid can undergo three types of expansions

(i) Linear expansion
(ii) Superficial expansion
(iii) Cubical expansion

• Telephone wires are kept loose to allow the wires for contraction in winter.
• A gap is provided between two iron tracks of the railway track, so that rails can  easily expand during summer  and do not bend.

Specific Heat

• The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance through 1⁰C, is called its specific heat.
• When temperature of water is increased from 0⁰C, then its volume decreases upto 4⁰C, becomes minimum at 4⁰C and then increases.
• This behaviour of water around 4⁰C is called anomalous expansion of water.

Latent Heat

• The heat energy absorbed or released at constant temperature per unit mass for change of state is called the latent heat.
• Latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 cal/g.
• Latent heat of vaporization of steam is 536 cal/g.
• Hot water burns are less severe than that of steam burns because steam has high latent heat.

Evaporation

• It is the slow process of a conversion of liquid into its vapour even below its boiling temperature.
• The amount of water vapour in air is called humidity.
• Relative humidity is measured by hygrometer.
• Relative humidity increase with the increase of temperature.

Transmission of Heat

• Transfer of heat from one place to other place is called transmission of heat.
• In solids, transmission of heat takes place by conduction process.
• In liquids and gases, transmission of heat takes place by convection process. In room, ventilators are provided to escape the hot air by convection.
• Heat from the Sun reaches the Earth by radiation.

Simple Pendulum

• Simple pendulum is a heavy point mass suspended from a rigid support by means of an elastic and inextensible string.
• The maximum time period of a simple pendulum is 84.6 min.
• The time period of a simple pendulum does not depend upon the mass, shape and size of the bob and its amplitude of oscillation. A pendulum clock goes slow in summer and fast in winter.
• If a simple pendulum is suspended in a lift descending down with acceleration, then time period of pendulum will increase. If lift is ascending, then time period of pendulum will decrease.
• If a lift falling freely under gravity, then the time period of the pendulum is infinite.

SSC

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  National Parks in India

 

Madhya Pradesh

Bandhavgarh National Park
Kanha National Park
Madhav National Park
Mandla Fossils National Park
Van Vihar National Park
Panna National Park
Pench National Park
Sanjay National Park
Satpura National Park

Karnataka

Bandipur National Park
Bannerghatta National Park
Kudremukh National Park
Nagarhole National Park

Jharkhand

Betla National Park
Hazaribagh National Park

Odisha

Bhitarkanika National Park

Gujarat

Blackbuck National Park
Gir Forest National Park
Marine Gulf of Kutch park
Vansda National Park 

West Bengal

Sundarbans National Park
Buxa Tiger Reserve
Gorumara National Park
Jaldapara National Park
Neora Valley National Park
Singalila National Park 

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Campbell Bay National Park
Galathea National Park
Mahatma National Park
Middle Button National Park
Mount Harriet National Park
North Button National Park
South Button National Park
Rani Jhansi National Park
Saddle Peak National Park

Maharashtra

Chandoli National Park
Negaon National Park
Sanjay Gandhi National Park
Tadoba National Park
Gugamal National Park

Jammu and Kashmir

Dachigam National Park
Hemis National Park
Kishtwar National Park
Salim Ali National Park

Rajasthan

Darrah National Park
 Desert National Park 
 Keoladeo National Park
Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary
Ranthambore National Park
Sariska Tiger Reserve

Assam

Dibru-Saikhowa National Park
Kaziranga National Park
Manas National Park
Orang National Park
Nameri National Park

Odisha

Nandankanan Zoological Park
Simlipal National Park

Uttar Pradesh

Dudhwa National Park

Bihar

Valmiki National Park

Kerala

Eravikulam National Park
Mathikettan National Park
Periyar National Park
Silent Valley National Park

Uttarakhand

Gangotri National Park
Govind Wildlife Sanctuary

Tamil Nadu

Guindy National Park
Gulf of Mannar National Park
Indira Sanctuary
Mudumalai National Park
Mukurthi National Park
Palani Hills National Park

Punjab

Harike Wetland

Haryana

Kalesar National Park
Sultanpur National Park

Himachal Pradesh

Great Himalayan National Park
Pin Valley National Park

Chhattisgarh

Indravati National Park
Kanger Ghati National Park

Uttarakhand

Jim Corbett National Park
Nanda Devi National Park
Rajaji National Park
Valley of Flowers National Park

Telangana

Kasu Reddy National Park
Vanasthali National Park

Manipur

Keibul Lamjao National Park
Sirohi National Park

Sikkim

Khangchendzonga Park

Arunachal Pradesh

Mouling National Park
Namdapha National Park

Mizoram

Murlen National Park
Blue Mountain National Park

Andhra Pradesh

Papikonda National Park
Sri Venkateswara Park

Goa

Mollem National Park

Telangana

Mrugavani National Park

Nagaland

Ntangki National Park 

Meghalaya

Balphakram National Park Meghalaya
Nokrek National Park Meghalaya

SSC

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